Complementary Genes

 Definition

     Two independent pairs of genes which interact to produce a trait together, but each dominant gene alone doesn't show its effect, are called complementary Genes. 

Example

Several varieties of white flowered sweet peas are known and a cross between most of these varieties yields only white flowered offspring

A cross illustrating the action of Complementary gene

One dominant gene C , controls the synthesis of  the raw material for the purple pigment

The Other Dominant gene E, controls the formation of an enzymes that converts the raw material into the purple pigment.

At lease one C gene and  one E gene must be present to produce purple flower.

The absence of any one or both results in the formation of white flowers.

 So, the cross between ccEE and CCee gives CcEe in F1 generation .

In F2 generation , the cross gives a ratio of 9 Purple and 7 White Flowered plants .

So, F2 generation is

                               9 Purple flowered plants : 7 White Flowered plants

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Double Fertilization

 

Double Fertilization

One male gamete fuses with the egg to form the diploid zygote. The process is called syngamy or generative fertilization. The diploid zygote finally develops into embryo. The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid primary endosperm nucleus. The process is called the triple fusion or vegetative fertilization. The two acts of fertilization constitute the process of double Fertilization.

      The process was demonstrated for the first time by Nawaschin (1898) in Lilium and Fritillaria.

Diagram showing the various stages of fertilization 

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Fertilization in flowering plants

 Fertilization

Fusion of male gamete (egg) to form a diploid zygote within the embryosac(or female gametophyte) is called fertilization. 

       In angiosperms, the male gametes are carried to the egg by pollen tube , This process is called siphonogamy.

Growth of The Pollen Tube

The two called pollen grains reach the receptive stigma of the carpel by the act of pollination. Pollen grains, after getting attached to the stigma , absorb water and swell. They release the wall-held proteins and other components so that recognition factors from the pollen and stigma come close to each other. Subsequent to mutual recognition and acceptance of pollen grains, the pollen grains germinates to produce a pollen tube which grows into stigma towards the ovarian cavity. Initial growth on pollen tube occurs at the expense of energy and food materials stored in the pollen tube.

The tube secreted exogenous pectinases and other hydrolytic enzymes to create a passage for its entry. The style is hollow in most of the plants.

Entry of The Pollen Tube Into The Ovule

After reaching the ovary, the pollen tube enters the Ovule, either through micropylar end , chalazal end or laterally. Porogamy is most common, chalazogamy is less common and mesogamy is rare. In  (micropylar end, ) porogamy, tip of the pollen tube enters the micropyle, pushes through the nucellar tissue and finally pierces the egg apparatus end of the embryosac.

     The mature monosporic Polygonum type of embrosac consists of three antipodal cells, one secondary nucleus, two synergids and an egg. The two synergids and an egg make the egg apparatus which is located towards the micropylar end of the embryosac.  The synergids direct the growth of pollen tube by secreting some chemical substance. The tip of pollen tube enters into one synergids. The penetrate synergids start degenerating. After penetrating, the tip of pollen tube enlarge and ruptures , releasing most of its content including the male gamete and the vegetative nucleus into synergids.

Advantage and Disadvantages of Cross pollination

 Advantages of Cross Pollination

1. Cross pollination brings about genetic recommendation and production of new varieties.

2.Cross Pollination results in healthy and stronger offspring due to phenomenon of hybrid vigour.

3. Several crop plants give significantly higher yields if bees are available and cross pollination is allowed to occur.

4.Variation caused due to cross pollination may results in production of disease resistant plants.

5. Cross pollination results in the production of seeds in self -sterile plants.

Disadvantages of Cross Pollination

1. Cross pollination is not economical. The plants waste lot of energy and food materials in unnecessary adaptations and devices to bring pollination.

2. Cross pollination is uncertain because a factor of chance is always involved.

3. It involves addition of some undesirable character or loss of some important character.

4.Many of the seeds or pollen grains become damaged due to the incomplete process or by spoilage of seeds or pollen grains.

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CROSS POLLINATION and METHODS of Cross pollination

 Cross pollination

It involves the transfer of pollen grains from the flower of one plant to the stigma of another plant. It is called cross pollination, xenogamy or allogamy.

Methods of cross pollination

The methods of cross pollination are categorised in two groups -

 a) Abiotic agents i.e wind current, gravity, water etc.

b) Biotic agents - such as animals, birds, insects, bats etc.

Abiotic agents or methods

i) Anemophily (anemos means wind and philein-to love)

It is the mode of pollination or transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma through agency of wind. The flower which are wind pollinated are called anemophilous.

The characteristics of anemophilous flowers are - 

i) Flowers are small colourless, inconspicuous, odourless and nectarless.

ii)Calyx and corolla are either reduced or absent. Anthers are usually versatile.

iii) When flowers are unisexual, male flowers are more abundant than female flowers. In bisexual flowers, the stamens are generally numerous.

 iv) pollen grains are small, light, dry, dusty and sometimes winged so that they are easily blown away to long distance.

v)The flowers are well exposed in the air.

vi) Pollen grains of anemophilous flowers are produced in huge quantity.

vii) The sigmas are large, well-exposed, hairy, feathery or branched to catch the air -borne pollen grains.

viii) In some plants, the anthers burst suddenly to throw the pollen grains into the air (gun powder mechanism).

Pollination by wind

Example of wind pollinated flower are- 

Grasses, Sugarcane, bamboo, coconut,palm, date palm, cannabis, maize etc.

ii) Hydrophily(water pollination)

It is a mode of pollination or transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma through the agency of water.

The characteristics of the Hydrophilous plants are as follows - 

i) Flowers are small, colourless, inconspicuous, odourless and nectarless.

ii) Calyx, corrola and other floral parts are unwettable.

iii) Pollen grains and stigma are generally unwettable.

iv) The stigma are long and sticky.

Example of Hydrophilous plants are -Vallisneria, Zostera,Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla etc.

 In Vallisneria, a submerged fresh water hydrophyte, is a dioecious plant i.e male flower borne on male plants and female flower borne on female  plants. Mature male flower are abscised from the spadix and float on the surface of water. The mature female flowers also float on the surface of water,but remain attached to the female plant with the help of long stalks. The floating female flower have large sticky stigmas , so when anthers burst to release the pollen grains,it get attached to the female stigmas for the purpose of pollination on the surface of water. After fertilization, the female flowers are pulled down inside the water by the coiling of the flower stalk.

Pollination in VALLISNERIA

iii) Ornithophily (pollination by Birds)

It is the mode of pollination performed by birds. The most common bird pollinators are Sun bird, Humming bird,Crow, Bulbul, Parrot,Mynah etc. 

The characteristics of the ornithophilous flowers are as follows -

i) the flowers are usually large in size. They have tubular or funnel shaped corollas.

ii) The flowers are bright coloured which attract the birds from the long distances.

iii) The flowers produce abundant watery nectar.                               

iv) They are usually scentless.

                                                                Pollination by birds

Example of ornithophilous plants are - Bombax( Red Silk Cotton), Bottle brush, Bignonia, Agave etc.

iv)  Chiropterophily(Bat Pollination)

It is the mode of pollination performed by bats. The bats are nocturnal which move swiftly and transport pollen grains to long distance.

 Characteristics of the chiropterophilous 

plants are- 

i) The flowers are large, dull coloured and have a strong scent.

ii) These flowers produce abundant pollen grains and secrete more nectar than ornithophilous flowers.

Example of chiropterophilous plants are - kigelia pinnata, Adansonia,Bauhinia megalandra, Anthocephalus.

v) Entomophily ( Insect pollination)

It is the mode of pollination or transfer of anthers to the stigmas  by the insects.

 

The entomophilous flowers are characterized by the following adaptations - 

 

i) The flowers are usually large, conspicuous, brightly coloured and showy to attract insects.

ii) In this, petals of flowers are large and attractive. When they are small and inconspicuous, other parts of the plants are enlarge and become attractive.

iii) Small flowers bloom in bunches to attract the insects. Sometimes, they are condensed together to form a head.(e.g sunflower).

iv) Different colour of flowers attract different insects.

v) Entomophilous flowers usually blossom at specific time when particular insects or pollinators are available.

vi)These types of flowers usually produce specific odour to attract specific insects.

vii) pollen grains of certain flowers are edible. Many insects visit these flowers to eat their pollen grains or to carry them for their brood of larvae.

viii) Nectar secrete from their nectaries, is an important source of food for certain insects pollinators.

ix) The outer surface of pollen grains may be rough, spiny or sticky.  It possess yellow sticky substance called pollenkit which acts as insect attractants and as an adherent to the insect body.

A detailed example of entomophily pollination in SALVIA

 

The salvia genus belongs to family Labiate in which the gamopetalous corolla is two -lipped . The lower lip provides platform for the visiting insects and upper lip is just like a hood which protects the floral organs. The flowers are protandrous. Each flower has two epipetalous stamens located anterio-lateral in position. Each stamen has a short filament and an elongated curved connectives. The anther has two parts - one half is sterile and another half is fertile. Both parts of anther are separated apart due to elongation of connective. The elongated connective has two unequal arms. The upper arm is long and curved. It bears the fertile lobe of anther. The lower arm of connective is short and bears sterile lobe of anther. The two sterile lobes jointly form a sterile plate of tissue which is placed at the mouth of corolla tube and partly blocks the path of the visiting insects.As a bee visit the young flower and moves inward in search of nectar,it's head pushes sterile plate which brings down the fertile lobes to strike against its back. The pollen grains are deposited upon the back of the bee. When the bee visit older flowers, its back rubs against the mature stigma bringing about the pollination. 

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Pollination and types of pollination

 Pollination

   The transferral of pollen grains from the opened anthers to the receptive stigma of the carpel is called pollination. It is of two types-    SELF POLLINATION and CROSS POLLINATION.

SELF POLLINATION

     Self pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower to a stigma of the same flower or genetically similar flower. It occurs by two types s- 

a) Autogamy- ( autos=self, gamos=marriage)

        It is a kind of pollination in which the pollen  from the anthers of a flower are transferred to the stigma of the same flower. It occurs by three methods -

i) Cleistogamy (kleisto=closed,gamos= marriage) 

 Some plants never open to ensure complete self pollination. This condition is called Cleistogamy, e.g, oxalis, viola etc. These cleistogamous flowers are bisexual small, inconspicuous, colourless and do not secrete nectar.

ii) Homogamy 

 Anthers and stigma of bisexual flowers of some plants mature at the same time. They are bought close to each other by growth, bending or folding to ensure self pollination. This condition is called Homogamy.

E.g Mirabilis( Four 'o, clock), potato, sunflower plants etc.

iii) Bud pollination 

 Anthers and stigma of the bisexual flowers of some plants mature before the opening of buds to ensure self pollination, e.g , Wheat, Rice, peas etc.

B) Geitonogamy ( geiton- neighbour, gamos- marriage)

It is a kind of pollination in which pollen from anthers of one flower are transferred to the stigma of another flower borne on same plant. It usually occurs in plants which shows monoecious conditions ( unisexual, male and female flowers are borne on the same plants).

ADVANTAGES of SELF pollination -

1. Chances of pollination are more.

2.self pollination maintains purity of the race and avoids mixing.

3.It needs not to produce a large number of pollen grains.

4. Flowers need not  to possess devices such as large and showy petals , presence of scent and nectar,etc to attract pollinators.

DISADVANTAGES of Self pollination -

 1 . Progeny continuously gets weaker after every generation.

2. Less chances of the production of new species and varieties.

CROSS POLLINATION

It involves the transfer of pollen grains from the flower of one plant to the flower of another plants. It is called xenogamy or allogamy . 

The main floral characteristics which facilitate cross pollination are- 

i) Herkogamy - Flowers possess some mechanical barriers on their stigmatic surface to avoid self pollination e.g, presence of gynostegium and pollinia in calotropis.

ii)Dichogamy - pollen and stigma of the flower mature at different times to avoid self pollination. It is of two types - protogyny and protandry.

iii) Self incompatibility - In some plants, the mature pollen fall on the receptive stigma of the same flower but fails to bring about self pollination. It is called self incompatibility.

iv) Male sterility- the pollen grains of some plants are not functional.Such plants set seeds only after cross pollination.

v) Dioecism- Cross pollination always occurs when plants are unisexual and dioecious i.e , male and female flower occurs on separate plants e.g, papaya, cucurbits etc

vi) Heterostyly - the flower of some plants have different lengths of stamens and styles so that self pollination is not possible e.g, primula, Linum etc.

Agents for cross pollination

 a) Abiotic agents - such as wind current, gravity, water, etc.

b) Biotic agents -  such as animal pollinators , insects, birds.

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Important terms used in genetics

 1.Gene. -  

A gene may be defined as the unit of inheritance which is carried from the parent by a gamete in a chromosome and expression of a character in the young one in cooperation with its allele, other gene and environment. Chemically, a gene is a linear segment of DNA. 

2.Allelomorphs( Allele) -

 A pair of genes that control the two alternative expressions of the same character and have the same loci(sites) in the homologous chromosomes are called allelomorphs or Allele. The term allele used for any two genes of a single character.

Example - The gene T and t for tallness and dwarfness for height of pea plant. Now TT, Tt, tt are considered as allele. 

3.Gene locus -

 A specific region of a chromosome representing a single gene or allele is known as gene locus. The allelic genes occupy the corresponding loci in a pair of homologous chromosomes.

4.Dominant and Recessive Allele -

When two alleles representing the alternative of a character come together in an individual, usually one allele is expressed fully and the other is not at all. The overpowering of one allele by another is called law of Dominance. 

  The allele which always expresses itself even in the presence of its contrasting allele is known as the dominant Allele.

   On the another hand,  the allele which fails to express itself in the presence of its contrasting dominant Allele is called recessive allele.  

  Example - a guinea pig with allele Bb for coat colour is black. The B allele for black colour coat being dominant express itself and the b for white coat colour being recessive, does not express itself.

Wild and Mutant alleles-

An original allele, dominant in expression and wild spread in the population, is called wild allele.

   An allele formed by a mutation in the wild allele, recessive in expression and less common in the population is termed as mutant alleles.

Homozygous organism -

An organism in which both the alleles of a character at the corresponding loci in homologous chromosomes are identical is said to be homozygous or genetically pure  organism. Homozygous individuals breed true for the specific trait i.e produce offspring with similar genotype and phenotype on inbreeding. They are called pure individual.

Example - The pea plant with TT and tt allele pair are homozygous for height. The combination Of TT allele is homozygous dominant; and the combination of tt allele is homozygous recessive.

 5.Heterozygous organism - 

An organism in which the two allele of a character at the corresponding loci in the homologous chromosomes are unlike is said to be heterozygous for their character. Heterozygous individual do not breed true and are said to be hybrid for their character.

Example - The pea plant with Tt allele pair is heterozygous for height ia heterozygote, one allele codes for dominant trait and the other is recessive trait, and usually the dominant allele is expressed and the recessive allele remains latent.

  So, the homozygous and heterozygous individual are called homozygote and heterozygote respectively.

6.F1 generation - 

It is the first filial generation of hybrid offspring produced in a genetic cross between two genetically different but pure parents.

Example - 

F1 generation produced by crossing TT and tt parent Pea Plants consists of Tt individuals.

7.F2 generation - 

It is the second filial generation of young ones produced in a genetic cross between two F1 organisms.

8.Pure Lines - 

A race of genetically pure,true breeding organisms resulting from continued selfing or inbreeding is called a pure Lines. In nature, pure Lines do not produce vigorous offspring because defective alleles may come to exist in homozygous state.

9.Genotype - 

 It is the sum total of genes inherited from both parents irrespective of whether they are expressed or not.

Example - TT, Tt and tt are genotype for the size of stem in pure tall, dwarf and hybrid tall garden pea.

10.Phenotype -

It refers to the expressed or observable structural and functional trait produced by the interaction of genes and environment.

Example - Tallness in pea plant, colour blindness in man are phenotype.both are noticed by eyes.

         Individual of the same genotype have the same phenotype and breed alike. Individuals of different genotype may also have the same phenotype e.g the genotype TT and Tt give rise to tall pea plant.

11.Genome -

A complete set of gene (DNA instructions) contained in the haploid dose of chromosomes and inherited as a unit from one parent is known as genome. A haploid cell contains two genomes, one parental, other maternal. A cell may have more than two genomes also. Such cells are called polyploids.

12.Gene pool- 

 All the genotype of all the individuals in an inbreeding population make up a gene pool.

  

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Mendel's Second Law- The Law of Independent Assortment

Law of independent assortment 

Definition - This law states that the alleles of two different characters located in different pairs of homologous chromosomes are independent of one another during gamete formation and coming together into the offspring by fertilization, both processes occurring randomly.

OR

The principle of Independent Assortment may also stated that during the  formation of gametes in each sex, either one of a pair of alleles may enter the same gamete with either one of another pair.

Explanation with examples

i) Cross between Pea Plants

Cross a pure pea plant having round seeds and yellow cotyledons with a pure pea plant having wrinkled seeds and green cotyledons.

Here , the round form of seeds and yellow colour of cotyledons are dominant over the wrinkled seeds and green colour of cotyledons. The parent plants may beCr represented by RRYY and rryy. During the gametes formation , meiosis separate the two alleles of each trait so that gamete get only one allele of each trait.

The F1 generation formed by the fusion of gametes with alleles RY and ry i.e they have RrYy. They all are hybrid with round seeds and yellow cotyledons.

In F2 generation,  

After crossing the F1 generation four types of gametes are formed and produce four types of plants in F2 generation. They are in ratio of 9:3:3:1 where 9 with round seeds and yellow cotyledons,3 with round seeds and green cotyledons, 3 with wrinkled seeds and yellow cotyledons and 1 with wrinkled seeds and yellow cotyledons . 

ii) Cross between Guinea pig

Mate a black, short haired male guinea pig with a pure white female Guinea pig . Here the black colour is dominant over the white colour and short hair are dominant over the long hair. Each character is represented by two alleles such as BBSS and bbss respectively. Here B stands for the allele of dominant black colour,b for white colour,S for the allele of short hair and s for the allele of recessive long hair. During the formation gamete , two character of each allele segregate so a gamete has only one allele of each character. i.e BS and bs. Now fertilization occurs. The zygote comes to possess two unlike allele for the size the hair it has Bb  Ss . The offspring developed from such zygote will be all hybrid with black colour and short hair.

    Now cross the hybrid black, short haired male and female of F1 generation among themselves. The allele for short and long hair again segregate during gamete formation. B can go with S or s i.e BS or Bs. Similarly b can go with S or s i.e bS or bs. Therefore the gamete show four combinations of allele which are 

a) black short BS

b) black long Bs

C) white short bS

d) white long bs

These gametes on fertilization produce four types of guinea pig in F2 generation. They're in the ratio of 9:3:3:1 i.e

9 black short

3 black long

3 white short

1 white long

The black and white guinea pigs are in ratio of 3:1 and pure black, hybrid black and pure white guinea pigs in ratio of 1:2:1 . Similarly short haired and long haired guinea pigs show ratio of 3:1 and pure short hybrid, hybrid short haired and pure long haired a ratio of 1:2:1 .

   The 9:3:3:1 Dihybrid phenotypic ratio is the product of the two separate 3:1  monohybrid ratios, one for each allele pair.ie 

3:1 X 3:1 = 9:3:3:1

Advantage :-

 This cross shows that the two alleles of different characters do not interfere with one another's behaviour, but sorted out independently of one another

Limitations

The law of independent assortment of genes holds good only if the different pairs of alleles lie in the different chromosomes pair and not individual allele which are segregated during reduction division. 

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Law Of Segregation

 Law of Segregation

Definition 

         This law states that the two alleles during the formation of gametes or spores by meiosis move apart due to separation of the homologous chromosomes , so that each gamete or spore receives only one allele of each character, they are always pure . The law of Segregation is , therefore, also called the law of purity of gametes/spores.

Explanation:-

The law of Segregation can be explained with the help of monohybrid cross:-

Cross between pea 🫛 plant

Select a pure tall pea plant and cross it with a pure dwarf pea plant. Here, the tall size is dominant over the dwarf size. The allele equipment of these parent plants may be represented by TT and tt, where T stands for the allele of dominant tall size and t for the allele of recessive dwarf size. During gamete formation, meiosis segregates (separate) the allele of tallness and dwarfness so that the gametes get the allele T and t respectively.

         The F1 offspring formed by the fusion of gamete with alleles T and t will have two unlike allele Tt for the size. The allele for tallness, being dominant, will express itself in F1 plants, and the allele for dwarfness, being recessive, will remain unexpressed. All the F1 plants are therefore tall.

       Now cross the hybrid plant of F1 generation . Half of the gametes receive the allele T for tallness and the half get the allele t for dwarfness in each parent. A gamete with allele T has an equal chance for fusing with a gamete having allele T or t. Therefore, F2 plants have three kinds of genotype: TT, Tt and tt.  In F2 generation, The ratio will be 1:2:1 in genotype and 3:1 in phenotype. 

These ratios are possible only if- 

I) the two alleles of a trait do not affect each other when together

II)  segregate during gametogenesis,

III) gametes contain only a single allele of a trait

IV) the allele come together in the offspring by random fusion of the gametes

V) F1 plants are hybrid, having contrasting allele (Tt here)

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